Discover rope rescue system, anchor types, knots, and techniques for safe and efficient low, and high-angle rescues in various terrains.

Anchor Points

Anchors play a crucial role in rope rescue and climbing. When selecting anchors, consider the following factors:

1. Strength and Reliability: Anchors must withstand the maximum load expected. For artificial anchors, check the product rating and installation status. For natural anchors, evaluate the stability and strength of rocks or trees.
2. Redundancy: It’s recommended to use multiple anchor points instead of relying on a single point. This ensures safety even if one anchor point fails.
3. Directionality: Anchors should be placed in the direction of the anticipated load. If the load direction might change, build an anchor system that can adapt.
4. Environmental Impact: Minimize the environmental impact, especially when using natural anchors. For example, take measures to protect the bark when using live trees as anchors.
5. Ease of Access and Installation: Anchors should be quick and safe to install. Complex installations can hinder emergency response.

Types of Anchors

Artificial Anchors:

• Bolts: Metal anchors fixed into rock or walls. Highly reliable but require specialized installation skills.
• Stakes: Metal stakes driven into the ground or snow. Used for tent setup or as temporary anchor points.
• Vehicles: Fixed vehicles can be used as anchor points, but their stability must be confirmed.

Natural Anchors:

• Rocks: Use large, stable rocks. The strength may vary depending on their shape and position.
• Trees: Thick, healthy trees can be used, but measures should be taken to protect the bark.

Combination Anchors:

• Climbing Cams, Pitons, Ice Screws: Movable anchor devices installed in rock or ice. They offer flexibility but require proper installation techniques.

Single Point Anchor

A single point anchor relies on one strong fixed point. It’s simple and quick to set up, making it useful in emergencies or situations requiring rapid action. However, it fully depends on the strength and stability of the chosen point.

Anchor Straps

Anchor straps are convenient safety devices used in rescue operations and climbing. They feature D-rings sewn at both ends, allowing for quick installation without tying knots. This is especially valuable in emergencies.

Single Loop Anchor

A single loop anchor is a simple system using webbing or cord. The webbing is looped and tied with a water knot. It’s economical and easy to set up but may slide up and down if not properly positioned.

Wrap 3 Pull 2 Anchor

The Wrap 3 Pull 2 (and Wrap 2 Pull 1) anchor systems are used in rescue operations. They involve wrapping rope or webbing around a fixed object multiple times, then connecting some of the strands with carabiners. This setup distributes stress and enhances stability.

Basket Hitch Anchor

A basket hitch anchor uses a pre-tied loop wrapped around an object. It provides strong fixation but may introduce three-axis loading on carabiners, reducing their strength. It may also slide under certain conditions.

Girth Hitch Anchors

Girth hitch anchors are made by looping webbing or rope around an object and passing one end through the loop, creating a secure fix. They are simple and quick to set up but may cause friction damage to the webbing.

Multi-Point Anchor

A multi-point anchor uses multiple fixed points to create a robust system, ideal when a single point isn’t strong enough or doesn’t align with the pull direction. This setup enhances overall strength and redundancy.

Multi-Point Anchor for Weak Anchors

When dealing with weak anchor points, use a multi-point system to combine several points for increased strength and safety. Ensure load distribution and consider extension and shock loads to maintain system integrity.

In summary, carefully selecting and configuring anchor points is essential for safety in rope rescue and climbing. Understanding the strengths and limitations of each type ensures a reliable and effective anchor system.

Knots in Rescue Operations

In rescue operations, knots play a crucial role. Rescuers must “create” these knots directly on-site, so it is essential to have the skill to tie them quickly and correctly.

Dressing the Knot

“Dressing” a knot means arranging it to remove unnecessary twists and slack, maximizing its strength, and making it easier to check. Properly dressed knots are more reliable and safer.

Length of the Knot Tail

The length of the tail left after tying a knot is also important. The tail should be long enough to prevent the knot from coming undone accidentally. Generally, a tail length of about 3-4 inches (roughly the width of a fist) is ideal. This ensures the knot stays secure without excess rope getting in the way.

Most rescue gear is factory-made, but knots are “created” by rescuers during missions. Knowing how to tie knots correctly and quickly is crucial.

Types of Knots

Water Knot

The water knot (or tape knot) is used for tying flat tapes together. This knot is often used in climbing and rescue operations.

1. Make an overhand knot with the first tape. Form a loop with one end of the tape, pass the end through the loop, and pull it tight.
2. Take the second tape and follow the path of the first knot in reverse. This means tracing the path of the first knot with the second tape.
3. Pull both ends of the tapes tight to secure the knot. Make sure the knot is firm and doesn’t slip or come undone.

Leave at least 5 cm (2 inches) of tail on both ends of the water knot to prevent it from unraveling. This knot is suitable for tapes as it binds them securely together.

Butterfly Knot

The butterfly knot creates a loop in the middle of a rope. This knot is useful in climbing, mountaineering, and rescue operations.

1. Twist a section of rope to form a loop. Let a part of the rope hang down.
2. Make another loop on top of the first one, so the two loops overlap.
3. Pull the rope section under the two loops to form a new loop.
4. Tighten the new loop by pulling the original loops.

The butterfly knot provides a stable loop in the middle of the rope, which is essential for temporary anchor points or directional changes.

Figure-Eight Follow-Through

The figure-eight follow-through is commonly used in climbing for tying a rope to an object or harness.

1. Create a basic figure-eight knot. Form a large loop, pass the end under and back through the loop, making an 8 shape.
2. Pass the rope end through the attachment point on a harness.
3. Follow the figure-eight path back with the rope end, tracing the original knot.
4. Tighten the knot evenly and ensure the end is secure.

This knot is trusted for its strength and ease of untying.

Figure-Eight on a Bight

The figure-eight on a bight creates a strong loop in the middle or end of a rope, used in rescue and climbing.

1. Make a bight (a U-shaped loop) with the rope.
2. Form a figure-eight shape with the bight.
3. Pass the bight end through the figure-eight loop.
4. Tighten the knot evenly.

This knot creates a stable loop for attaching carabiners or other safety devices.

Directional Figure-Eight Knot

The directional figure-eight knot creates a loop that handles force in a specific direction, useful for intermediate anchors or pulley systems.

1. Form a figure-eight shape with the rope.
2. Ensure the knot faces the direction of the pull.
3. Dress the knot properly to secure it.

Points to Note:

• Limited Pull Direction: Applying force from the wrong direction can cause the knot to fail.
• Alternative Knot: Use a butterfly knot if force may come from multiple directions.

Understanding the correct way to tie and use these knots is vital for safety in rescue operations.

Anchor Systems

Anchor systems are used in rope rescue, climbing, and other activities to securely anchor ropes and equipment. Proper selection and installation of anchors are critical for the safety of both rescuers and victims. Here are key points to consider when constructing an anchor system:

Efficient Fall Line Selection

• Choose the Best Route: Select the most efficient route to reach the victim. The fall line (the line where the rope hangs) should provide direct access to the victim, but avoid descending directly above them to prevent rockfalls.
• Minimize Risks: Choose the lowest possible fall line to minimize risks.

Rescue System Types and Anchor Placement

• Determine the System: Decide on the rescue system to use (edge management, descending, raising, traversing, etc.) and place anchor points accordingly. Proper height of anchors improves rescue efficiency.
• Evaluate Safety: Carefully assess the safety of anchor points and avoid relying too much on a single object.
• Predict Rope Line Movement: Determine anchor points early and predict how the rope lines (main line and belay line) will move.

Anchor Point Placement

• Keep Anchors Away from Edges: Place anchor points far enough from the edge to reduce the risk for the rescue team. Align main and belay line anchor points to improve communication and monitoring.

High-Strength Tie-Off

High-strength tie-off, or tensionless hitch, is a technique for securing ropes to anchor points while maintaining maximum rope strength. Knots typically reduce rope strength by about one-third, but tensionless hitch avoids this.

Steps:

1. Wrap the Rope: Wrap the end of the rope around the anchor point at least three times.
2. Return at 90 Degrees: After wrapping, return the rope at a 90-degree angle to the main line, securing it tightly to the anchor point.

Load-Sharing Anchor (Cordelett Anchor)

A load-sharing anchor distributes the load across multiple anchor points to avoid concentrating the load on a single point.

Steps:

1. Select Multiple Anchor Points: Ensure each point is strong enough.
2. Connect with Cordelett: Use a cordelett to connect the points, keeping each leg’s length fixed.
3. Tie Central Knot: Form the center of the anchor system with a figure-eight or overhand knot.

Pre-Tensioned Back-Tie

Pre-tensioned back-tie adds extra safety by creating a tensioned link between the primary anchor and a backup anchor.

Steps:

1. Webbing Wrap: Wrap webbing around the focal point, weaving it with the anchor connection.
2. Triple Rope Back-Tie: Create a back-tie with triple ropes between the focal point and the rear anchor, using carabiners as pulleys for 3:1 mechanical advantage.
3. Apply Tension: Apply tension to the line, forming a vector force by pushing down the bundle of ropes.
4. Lock: Lock the back-tie with a half hitch or prusik knot.

Front and Rear Anchor Placement

Ensure front and rear anchors are positioned within 15 degrees of each other relative to the fall line (total 30 degrees) for balance and load distribution. Use two pre-tensioned back-ties if the offset exceeds 15 degrees.

Artificial Anchors

Artificial anchors provide secure points when natural anchors are unavailable.

Types:

• Chocks and Nuts: Wedge into rock cracks.
• Hexes: Suitable for larger cracks.
• Bolts: Drilled into rock or walls.
• Pitons: Hammered into cracks.
• Vehicles and Buildings: Use the structural parts for anchoring.

Picket Anchors

Picket anchors are used in soil environments when natural anchors are unavailable.

Steps:

1. Assess Soil: Choose suitable soil conditions for strong support.
2. Use Steel Pickets: Drive steel pickets (at least 1 meter long) into the ground.
3. Spacing and Angle: Place pickets in a 1-1-1 combination, with each spaced one picket length apart and angled 20 degrees towards the load.
4. Tensioning: Use trackers hitch or Spanish windlass to tension lines between pickets.

Vehicle Anchors

Vehicles can serve as anchors, especially useful in rescue operations.

Points:

• Vehicle Weight and Surface: Ensure the vehicle’s weight provides enough friction with the ground.
• Anchor Points: Secure ropes to the vehicle’s frame or axle, avoiding hot or oily areas and brake lines.

Directionals

Directionals change the path of the rope to avoid contact with rocks or vegetation, reducing wear and friction.

Tools:

• Pulleys: Fixed to another anchor to redirect ropes.
• Adjustable Hitches and Aztecs: Allow flexibility and precise adjustments in rope direction.

By considering these points, anchor systems can be constructed safely and efficiently for rescue operations and climbing activities.

Edge Management

Edge attendants play a crucial role in rescue operations conducted near edges, such as cliffs or high-altitude work sites. Their main task is to ensure the safety of ropes, rescuers, and the individuals being rescued. Here are their specific roles:

Edge Protection

• Rope Protection: Edge attendants fix canvas pads or edge rollers to the edge of a cliff to prevent ropes from directly touching and getting worn or damaged by rocks or the ground.
• Rope Arrangement: The main line is set up through edge rollers, and the belay line is placed outside the edge rollers. This arrangement provides the necessary friction when the belay is activated.

Supporting Rescue Operations

• Litter Assistance: Edge attendants help stabilize the litter (stretcher) near the edge, ensuring the safety of the person being rescued.
• Communication Relay: They relay necessary information between the litter attendant and the rescuers above.

Safety Management

• Monitoring Belay Line: They constantly check the tension of the belay line and adjust it as needed.
• Additional Safety Line: Edge attendants use a fixed safety line, separate from the belay line, to ensure their own safety near the edge.

Edge Attendant Safety

• Cross-Linking Anchors: In steep, vertical terrains where separate anchors for edge attendants are impractical, cross-linking the main and backup anchors ensures safety even if one anchor fails.

Edge attendants are essential for conducting rescue operations safely and efficiently. They are responsible for tasks such as setting up edge protection, assisting with the litter, maintaining communication, and managing the belay line. Ensuring the safety of the edge attendants themselves is also critical, requiring appropriate safety measures.

Edge Protectors

Edge protectors are vital devices used to prevent ropes from wearing down or getting damaged when in contact with sharp surfaces like cliff edges or building edges. They are crucial in various situations where ropes are used, such as rescue operations, climbing, and high-altitude work. The importance of using edge protectors includes:

Rope Protection

• Wear Prevention: Ropes touching sharp edges directly can quickly wear down, reducing their strength. Edge protectors create a physical barrier between the rope and the sharp edge, significantly reducing wear.
• Reducing Cutting Risk: Ropes under high tension touching sharp edges are at risk of being cut. Edge protectors mitigate this risk, providing a safer environment.

Enhancing Safety in Rescue and Climbing

• Ensuring Reliability: In rescue operations and climbing, ropes are lifelines. Using edge protectors maintains the reliability of the ropes, enhancing safety.
• Preventing Accidents: Damaged ropes can lead to severe accidents like falls or injuries. Edge protectors are essential for reducing such risks.

Improving Efficiency

• Better Maneuverability: Edge protectors allow ropes to move smoothly, improving the efficiency of rescue and climbing operations. They protect ropes from obstacles, enhancing maneuverability.

Comprehensive Safety Management

• Compliance with Safety Standards: Many safety standards and regulations recommend or require the use of edge protectors. Following these guidelines ensures a legally compliant and safe working environment.

Low, Steep, and High Angle Rope Rescue

Low, Steep, and High Angle Rope Rescue: Understanding the differences in low-angle, steep slope, and high-angle rope rescue environments determines the training content and selection of equipment. The steeper the ground, the more difficult and technical the rescue becomes. Using ropes to access the person needing rescue, supporting both the rescuer and the victim during the rescue, and extricating from the rescue site all increase in danger.

The technical rescue industry defines angles as follows:

• 0–15 degrees: Flat terrain
• 15–29 degrees: Low angle
• 30–50 degrees: Middle angle
• Over 50 degrees: High angle

Low Angle Rescue

Low angle rescue involves terrain where the slope angle is between 15 and 29 degrees. The number of ropes and types of equipment needed are determined by the specific conditions of the terrain. Factors include whether the footing is poor or if there are loose rocks or other debris that make it slippery. How many rescuers are needed to safely transport the victim and stretcher is also considered.

High Angle Rescue

High angle rescue is for terrain where the slope angle exceeds 50 degrees. In these situations, rescuers are fully dependent on ropes to prevent themselves and the victim from falling, as well as to enter and exit the rescue location. Examples of high angle and steep locations include cliffs, buildings, towers, catwalks, the upper parts of ships, cranes, and water towers.

By understanding these distinctions, appropriate training and equipment can be selected for different rescue scenarios.

Rappelling

Rappelling is a method of descending from high places using a rope.

There are three situations where rescuers might use rappelling:

1. To reach a victim
2. To descend with a victim
3. To descend after completing a rescue
4. Overcoming the edge

The difficult part of rappelling is transitioning from a standing position. You must shift your weight onto the harness from your feet until you are sitting.

The higher the anchor point, the easier this transition becomes.

If the anchor is at ground level, it is very difficult to shift your weight onto the harness. Even squatting can cause your feet to drop. With a low anchor, it’s best to dangle your feet below the edge to transfer your weight to the harness.

Descent

• Keep your braking hand on the rope at all times.
• Keep your feet perpendicular to the wall, shoulder-width apart.
• Maintain a smooth, steady descent speed.

Be careful not to step on loose walls or rocks, as they can fall on people below.

To pass an overhang, keep your feet on the edge as you descend. This way, your head will be below the edge, preventing your face from hitting the wall.

Double Rope Technique System (Independent Belay)

The Double Rope Technique (DRT) is a common rope rescue method used in rescue operations. One team member controls the descent, while a second team member (belayer) secures the main line and assists in case the main line fails.

The team member lowering the main line uses a descent control device. The belayer uses tandem prusiks or a descent control device. The most important thing is for the belayer to minimize slack in the rope.

Tandem Prusik Belay

How to assemble a tandem prusik belay:

1. Wrap two prusiks (one long, one short) around the belay rope three times.
2. Wrap each prusik in the same direction.
   • Prusiks wrapped in the same direction are easier to manage visually and physically.
3. Pull the rope to ensure the prusiks are securely fastened.
4. Attach the prusiks to a carabiner connected to the anchor.

Reference page: “Key fire characteristics: combustion elements, smoke risks, toxic gases, and safe firefighting techniques.”

References　National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

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